-
1 actual
actual ['æktʃʊəl]∎ what were her actual words? quels étaient ses mots exacts?;∎ to take an actual example prendre un exemple concret;∎ the actual result was quite different le résultat véritable était plutôt différent;∎ the actual cost was £1,000 le coût exact était de 1000 livres;∎ what's the actual cash value of the car? quelle est la valeur réelle de la voiture?(b) (emphatic use) même;∎ the actual ceremony doesn't start until 10.30 la cérémonie même ne commence pas avant 10 heures 30;∎ this is the actual house where she was born voici en fait la maison où elle est née∎ to compare budgeted amounts with actuals comparer les prévisions budgétaires et les résultats obtenus(b) Stock Exchange livraisons fpl physiques, marchandises fpl livrées au comptanten fait►► Law actual bodily harm coups mpl et bles-sures fpl;Accountancy & Finance actual cost prix m de revient ou d'achat;actual figures chiffres mpl réels;Stock Exchange actual quotations cours mpl effectifs;Insurance actual total loss perte f totale effective;actual value valeur f réelle -
2 actual
1. n обыкн. наличный, реальный товар2. n филос. действительность3. a подлинный, действительный; фактически существующийactual size — натуральная величина; фактический размер
actual immunity — реальный, фактически действующий иммунитет
4. a текущий, современный; актуальныйactual position of affairs, actual state of things — фактическое положение дел
Синонимический ряд:1. existing (adj.) existent; existing; extant2. real (adj.) concrete; existent; extant; indisputable; material; present; real; substantive; tangible; undeniable; unfabled; veridical3. true (adj.) absolute; accurate; categorical; certain; correct; decided; definite; factual; genuine; hard; positive; sure-enough; trueАнтонимический ряд:abstract; fabulous; fake; false; feigned; fictitious; hypothetical; legendary; mythical; possible; potential; pretended; suppositious -
3 actual
'æk uəl(real; existing; not imaginary: In actual fact he is not as stupid as you think he is.) real- actually
actual adj real / verdadero
actual adjetivo ‹ley/situación/dirección› present, current; en el mundo actual in the modern world, in today's world
actual adjetivo
1 current, present
el actual presidente del Gobierno, the current president of the Government
2 (que está al día, moderno) up-to-date
un diseño muy actual, a very up-to date design ➣ Ver nota en actual
' actual' also found in these entries: Spanish: corriente - desvirtuar - dimanar - estar - hoy - real - mantener - material - moderno - presente English: actual - arms race - assessment - current - defending champion - euro - existent - existing - ongoing - present - present-day - record holder - reigning - contemporary - defending - full - real - reign - topical - true - very - wagetr['ækʧʊəl]1 real, verdadero,-a\SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALLin actual fact en realidadactual ['æktʃʊəl] adj: real, verdaderoadj.• efectivo, -a adj.• real adj.• verdadero, -a adj.'æktʃuəladjective (before n)a) ( real) realhe cited actual cases — citó casos reales or de la vida real
b) (precise, very) mismo['æktjʊǝl]1. ADJ1) (=real) reallet's take an actual case/example — tomemos un caso/ejemplo concreto
you met an actual film star? — ¿has conocido a una estrella de cine de verdad?
2) (=precise) [amount, figure] exacto; [words] exacto, textualwhat were his actual words? — ¿cuáles fueron sus palabras exactas or textuales?
3) (=very)the film used the actual people involved as actors — la película utilizó como actores a los implicados
4) (=proper)the actual wedding procession starts at eleven — el desfile de boda propiamente dicho empieza a las once
2.CPDactual bodily harm N — (Jur) daños mpl físicos, lesiones fpl corporales
actual loss N — (Comm) pérdida f efectiva
* * *['æktʃuəl]adjective (before n)a) ( real) realhe cited actual cases — citó casos reales or de la vida real
b) (precise, very) mismo -
4 actual
adjectiveeigentlich, tatsächlich [Lage, Gegebenheiten]; wirklich [Name, Gegenstand]; konkret [Beispiel]no actual crime was committed — es wurde kein eigentliches Verbrechen begangen
* * *['æk uəl]- academic.ru/607/actuality">actuality- actually* * *ac·tual[ˈæktʃuəl]I. adj attr, inv2. (genuine) echt3. (current) derzeitigin the \actual situation bei der derzeitigen Lage4. (precise) genauand those are the \actual words he used? und das hat er so gesagt?in \actual fact tatsächlich5. FIN\actual price Istpreis m\actual comparison/cost/percentage Istvergleich m/-kosten pl/-prozentsatz m\actual value Sollwert m, Istwert m* * *['ktjʊəl]adj1) eigentlich; reason, price also, result tatsächlich; case, example konkretthis is the actual house —
your actual... (inf) — ein echter/eine echte/ein echtes..., der/die/das echte...
2) (= precise) genauI don't remember the actual figures — ich erinnere mich nicht an die genauen Zahlen
3) (= existing now) derzeitig* * *he is not an actual actor yet er ist noch kein richtiger Schauspieler;an actual case ein konkreter Fall;actual cost WIRTSCHa) Ist-Kosten pl,b) Selbstkosten pl;in actual fact tatsächlich, in Wirklichkeit;actual intention eigentliche Absicht;actual playing time SPORT effektive Spielzeit;actual possession JUR unmittelbarer Besitz;actual power TECH effektive Leistung;actual sin REL aktuelle Sünde;actual situation Sachverhalt m;a) WIRTSCH, MATH effektiver Wert, Realwert m,b) TECH Ist-Wert m;2. gegenwärtig, jetzigI’m lunching tomorrow with your actual Pavarotti ich esse morgen mit keinem Geringeren als Pavarotti;I met your actual John Cleese at the party last night rat mal, wen ich gestern Abend auf der Party getroffen habe: John Cleese!act. abk1. acting2. active3. actor4. actual* * *adjectiveeigentlich, tatsächlich [Lage, Gegebenheiten]; wirklich [Name, Gegenstand]; konkret [Beispiel]* * *adj.effektiv adj.eigentlich adj.jeweilig adj.tatsächlich adj.wirklich adj. -
5 actual
-
6 actual
['æktʃʊəl]1) (real, specific) reale, effettivo2) (genuine)this is the actual room that Shakespeare worked in — questa è proprio la stanza in cui lavorò Shakespeare
3) (as such) vero e proprio* * *['æk uəl](real; existing; not imaginary: In actual fact he is not as stupid as you think he is.) reale- actually* * *['æktʃʊəl]1) (real, specific) reale, effettivo2) (genuine)this is the actual room that Shakespeare worked in — questa è proprio la stanza in cui lavorò Shakespeare
3) (as such) vero e proprio -
7 law
1) право ( в объективном смысле)2) закон3) общее право5) юстиция; юристы•according to law — в соответствии с правом, с законом; правомерно | соответствующий праву, закону; правомерный, законный;
law and order — правопорядок;
law and usage of Parliament — парламентский обычай;
law as amended — закон в изменённой редакции;
law as fact — право как факт, право как сущее;
law as norm — право как норма, право как должное;
at law — в соответствии с правом, в силу права, в области права; в рамках общего права;
law Christian — церковное право;
contrary to law — в противоречии с правом; в противоречии с законом | противоречащий праву; противоречащий закону;
law due to expire — закон с истекающим сроком действия;
law for the time being — закон, действующий в настоящее время;
law in force — 1. действующее право 2. действующий закон;
in law — по закону;
contemplation in law — 1. юридически значимые намерения, цель 2. точка зрения закона;
law in vigour — действующий закон;
law martial — военное положение;
law merchant — торговое право; обычное торговое право;
law spiritual — церковное право;
to be in trouble with the law — вступить в конфликт с законом;
to carry law into effect — ввести закон в действие;
to clarify the law — разъяснить смысл правовой нормы, закона;
to consult the law — обратиться за разъяснением к закону; обратиться за консультацией к юристу, к адвокату;
to continue existing law — продлевать действие существующей правовой нормы, закона;
to create new law — создавать новую правовую норму; принимать (новый) закон;
to elaborate the law — разрабатывать закон;
to emerge as law — обретать силу закона;
to get into difficulty with the law — вступить в конфликт с законом;
to go to law — обратиться к правосудию;
to keep law current — модернизировать право, закон;
to make laws — законодательствовать;
to practice law — заниматься юридической [адвокатской] практикой;
to provide for by law — предусмотреть законом, узаконить;
to restate the law — переформулировать, перередактировать правовую норму, закон;
to stand to the law — предстать перед судом;
to strain the law — допустить натяжку в истолковании закона;
to teach law — преподавать право;
law unacted upon — закон, который не соблюдается;
within the law — в рамках закона, в пределах закона
- law of armslaw of international organizations — право, регулирующее деятельность международных организаций
- law of civil procedure
- law of conflict of laws
- law of conflict
- law of contract
- law of copyright
- law of corrections
- law of crimes
- law of crime
- law of criminal procedure
- law of domestical relations
- law of domestic relations
- law of employment
- law of equity
- law of evidence
- law of God
- law of honour
- law of industrial relations
- law of international trade
- law of landlord and tenant
- law of marriage
- law of master and servant
- law of merchants
- law of merchant shipping
- law of nations
- law of nature
- law of neighbouring tenements
- law of obligation
- law of outer space
- law of peace
- law of personal property
- law of persons
- law of power
- law of practice
- law of prize
- law of procedure
- law of property
- law of quasi-contract
- law of real property
- law of shipping
- law of substance
- law of succession
- law of taxation
- law of the air
- law of the case
- law of the church
- law of the Constitution
- law of the court
- law of the flag
- law of the land
- law of the sea
- law of the situs
- law of the staple
- law of torts
- law of treaties
- law of trusts
- law of war
- abnormal law
- absolute law
- actual law
- adjective law
- adjective patent law
- administrative law
- admiralty law
- admitted law
- agrarian law
- air carriage law
- ambassadorial law
- American Indian law
- American international law
- Antarctic law
- anti-corrupt practices laws
- antipollution laws
- anti-trust laws
- antiunion laws
- applicable law
- applied law
- bad law
- banking law
- basic law
- binding law
- blue law
- blue sky laws
- Brehon laws
- broken law
- business law
- canon law
- case law
- census disclosure law
- church law
- cited law
- civil law
- club law
- commercial law
- commitment law
- common law
- company law
- comparative law
- compiled laws
- congressional law
- conservation laws
- consolidated laws
- conspiracy law
- constitutional law
- consuetudinary law
- consular law
- continental law
- contract law
- conventional law
- conventional international law
- copyright law
- corporate law
- criminal law
- crown law
- current law
- customary law
- customary international law
- customs law
- decisional law
- diplomatic law
- discriminating law
- discriminatory law
- domestic law
- domiciliary law
- dormant law
- draft law
- dry law
- ecclesiastical law
- economic law
- educational law
- effective law
- efficacious law
- election law
- emergency laws
- employment law
- enacted law
- enforceable law
- enrolled law
- environmental law
- equity law
- established law
- exchange law
- exclusion laws
- executive law
- executively inspired law
- existing law
- ex post facto law
- extradition laws
- extradition law
- factory laws
- factory law
- fair employment practices law
- fair trade laws
- family law
- fecial law
- federal law
- feudal law
- finance law
- fiscal law
- foreign law
- formal law
- free law
- French Canadian law
- fundamental law
- game laws
- general law
- generally applicable law
- gibbet law
- good law
- group law
- Halifax law
- harsh law
- health laws
- highway laws
- highway traffic law
- homestead laws
- housing law
- hovering laws
- humanitarian law
- immutable law
- industrial law
- industrial property case law
- inheritance law
- inner comparative law
- insurance law
- interlocal criminal law
- internal law
- internal-revenue law
- international law
- international law of the sea
- international administrative law
- international conventional law
- international criminal law
- international fluvial law
- international public law
- interpersonal law
- interstate law
- intertemporal law
- intestate laws
- introduced law
- Jim Crow laws
- judaic law
- judge-made law
- judicial law
- judiciary law
- labour relations law
- labour law
- land law
- legislation law
- licensing law
- living law
- Lynch law
- magisterial law
- maritime law
- market law
- marriage law
- martial law
- matrimonial law
- mercantile law
- military law
- mining law
- mob law
- model law
- modern law
- Mohammedan law
- moral law
- municipal law
- national law
- nationality law
- natural law
- naval law
- naval prize law
- neutrality laws
- new law
- no-fault law
- nondiscriminating law
- nondiscriminatory law
- non-enacted law
- nuclear law
- obscenity law
- obsolete law
- occupational safety laws
- official law
- official session law volume
- old law
- organic law
- original law
- ostensible law
- outmoded law
- pamphlet laws
- parliamentary law
- pass law
- passed law
- patent law
- penal law
- permissive law
- personal law
- personal law of origin
- police law
- political law
- poor laws
- positive law
- present law
- prevailing law
- preventive martial law
- prima facie law
- primary law
- prior law
- prison laws
- privacy law
- private law
- private international law
- privilege law
- prize law
- procedural law
- procedural criminal law
- promulgated law
- proper law of the contract
- property law
- proposed law
- provincial law
- public law
- public contract law
- punitive law
- quarantine laws
- real property law
- real law
- regional international law
- relevant law
- remedial law
- retroactive law
- retrospective law
- revenue laws
- road laws
- road transport law
- Roman Civil law
- Roman law
- safety laws
- sea law
- secular law
- session law
- settled law
- slip law
- social security law
- social law
- sound law
- space law
- special law
- speed law
- standing law
- state law
- state-use law
- state-wide law
- statute law
- stringent law
- subsidiary law
- succession law
- sumptuary laws
- Sunday closing laws
- superior law
- supreme law of the land
- tacit law
- tariff law
- tax law
- territorial law
- trade laws
- traditional law
- traffic laws
- transnational law
- treaty law
- unalterable law
- unenforceable law
- unified laws
- uniform law
- ununified laws
- unwritten law
- unwritten constitutional law
- vagrancy laws
- wage and hour laws
- war law
- welfare laws
- wildlife law
- working law
- written law
- written constitutional law
- zoning law
- electoral law
- financial law
- indefeasible law
- merchant law
- statutory law -
8 Ideas
I never wrote or concluded that the mind required innate ideas which were in some sort different from its faculty of thinking; but when I observed the existence in me of certain thoughts which proceeded, not from extraneous objects nor from the determination of my will, but solely from the faculty of thinking which is within me, then... I termed [these] "innate." (Descartes, 1955, p. 442)[S]imple ideas are not fictions of our fancies, but the natural and regular productions of things without us really operating upon us.... Thus, the idea of whiteness or bitterness, as it is in the mind, exactly answering that power which is in any body to produce it there, has all the real conformity it can or ought to have with things without us.... [However], all our complex ideas except those of substances being archetypes of the mind's own making, not intended to be the copies of anything, as to their originals, cannot want any conformity necessary to real knowledge. For that which is not designed to represent anything but itself, can never be capable of a wrong representation, nor mislead us from the true apprehension of anything by its dislikeness to it; and such, excepting those of substances, are all our complex ideas: which... are combinations of ideas which the mind by its free choice puts together without considering any connection they have in nature. (Locke, 1956, B. IV, Chap. 4, Sec. 5)[O]ur moral ideas as well as mathematical, being archetypes themselves, and so adequate and complete ideas, all the agreement or disagreement which we shall find in them will produce real knowledge, as well as in mathematical figures. (Locke, 1956, B. IV, Chap. 4, Sec. 7)Ideas... are real things, or do really exist; this we do not deny, but we deny they can subsist without the minds which perceive them, or that they are resemblances of any archetypes existing without the mind; since the very being of a sensation or idea consists in being perceived, and an idea can be like nothing but an idea. (Berkeley, 1996, Pt. I, No. 90, pp. 63-64)The empiricists were right to believe that facts and ideas are significantly connected, but they inverted the relationship. Ideas create information, not the other way around. Every fact grows from an idea; it is the answer to a question we could not ask in the first place if an idea had not been invented which isolated some portion of the world, made it important, focused our attention, and stimulated inquiry. (Roszak, 1994, p. 105)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Ideas
-
9 actual
'æk uəl(real; existing; not imaginary: In actual fact he is not as stupid as you think he is.) virkelig, faktisk- actuallyfaktiskadj. \/ˈæktʃʊəl\/, \/ˈæktjʊəl\/1) faktisk, virkelig, reell2) egentlig, selve3) nåværende, gjeldende, aktuellin actual fact i virkeligheten, faktisk -
10 Artificial Intelligence
In my opinion, none of [these programs] does even remote justice to the complexity of human mental processes. Unlike men, "artificially intelligent" programs tend to be single minded, undistractable, and unemotional. (Neisser, 1967, p. 9)Future progress in [artificial intelligence] will depend on the development of both practical and theoretical knowledge.... As regards theoretical knowledge, some have sought a unified theory of artificial intelligence. My view is that artificial intelligence is (or soon will be) an engineering discipline since its primary goal is to build things. (Nilsson, 1971, pp. vii-viii)Most workers in AI [artificial intelligence] research and in related fields confess to a pronounced feeling of disappointment in what has been achieved in the last 25 years. Workers entered the field around 1950, and even around 1960, with high hopes that are very far from being realized in 1972. In no part of the field have the discoveries made so far produced the major impact that was then promised.... In the meantime, claims and predictions regarding the potential results of AI research had been publicized which went even farther than the expectations of the majority of workers in the field, whose embarrassments have been added to by the lamentable failure of such inflated predictions....When able and respected scientists write in letters to the present author that AI, the major goal of computing science, represents "another step in the general process of evolution"; that possibilities in the 1980s include an all-purpose intelligence on a human-scale knowledge base; that awe-inspiring possibilities suggest themselves based on machine intelligence exceeding human intelligence by the year 2000 [one has the right to be skeptical]. (Lighthill, 1972, p. 17)4) Just as Astronomy Succeeded Astrology, the Discovery of Intellectual Processes in Machines Should Lead to a Science, EventuallyJust as astronomy succeeded astrology, following Kepler's discovery of planetary regularities, the discoveries of these many principles in empirical explorations on intellectual processes in machines should lead to a science, eventually. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)5) Problems in Machine Intelligence Arise Because Things Obvious to Any Person Are Not Represented in the ProgramMany problems arise in experiments on machine intelligence because things obvious to any person are not represented in any program. One can pull with a string, but one cannot push with one.... Simple facts like these caused serious problems when Charniak attempted to extend Bobrow's "Student" program to more realistic applications, and they have not been faced up to until now. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 77)What do we mean by [a symbolic] "description"? We do not mean to suggest that our descriptions must be made of strings of ordinary language words (although they might be). The simplest kind of description is a structure in which some features of a situation are represented by single ("primitive") symbols, and relations between those features are represented by other symbols-or by other features of the way the description is put together. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)[AI is] the use of computer programs and programming techniques to cast light on the principles of intelligence in general and human thought in particular. (Boden, 1977, p. 5)The word you look for and hardly ever see in the early AI literature is the word knowledge. They didn't believe you have to know anything, you could always rework it all.... In fact 1967 is the turning point in my mind when there was enough feeling that the old ideas of general principles had to go.... I came up with an argument for what I called the primacy of expertise, and at the time I called the other guys the generalists. (Moses, quoted in McCorduck, 1979, pp. 228-229)9) Artificial Intelligence Is Psychology in a Particularly Pure and Abstract FormThe basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense. We can now see why this includes psychology and artificial intelligence on a more or less equal footing: people and intelligent computers (if and when there are any) turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. Moreover, with universal hardware, any semantic engine can in principle be formally imitated by a computer if only the right program can be found. And that will guarantee semantic imitation as well, since (given the appropriate formal behavior) the semantics is "taking care of itself" anyway. Thus we also see why, from this perspective, artificial intelligence can be regarded as psychology in a particularly pure and abstract form. The same fundamental structures are under investigation, but in AI, all the relevant parameters are under direct experimental control (in the programming), without any messy physiology or ethics to get in the way. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)There are many different kinds of reasoning one might imagine:Formal reasoning involves the syntactic manipulation of data structures to deduce new ones following prespecified rules of inference. Mathematical logic is the archetypical formal representation. Procedural reasoning uses simulation to answer questions and solve problems. When we use a program to answer What is the sum of 3 and 4? it uses, or "runs," a procedural model of arithmetic. Reasoning by analogy seems to be a very natural mode of thought for humans but, so far, difficult to accomplish in AI programs. The idea is that when you ask the question Can robins fly? the system might reason that "robins are like sparrows, and I know that sparrows can fly, so robins probably can fly."Generalization and abstraction are also natural reasoning process for humans that are difficult to pin down well enough to implement in a program. If one knows that Robins have wings, that Sparrows have wings, and that Blue jays have wings, eventually one will believe that All birds have wings. This capability may be at the core of most human learning, but it has not yet become a useful technique in AI.... Meta- level reasoning is demonstrated by the way one answers the question What is Paul Newman's telephone number? You might reason that "if I knew Paul Newman's number, I would know that I knew it, because it is a notable fact." This involves using "knowledge about what you know," in particular, about the extent of your knowledge and about the importance of certain facts. Recent research in psychology and AI indicates that meta-level reasoning may play a central role in human cognitive processing. (Barr & Feigenbaum, 1981, pp. 146-147)Suffice it to say that programs already exist that can do things-or, at the very least, appear to be beginning to do things-which ill-informed critics have asserted a priori to be impossible. Examples include: perceiving in a holistic as opposed to an atomistic way; using language creatively; translating sensibly from one language to another by way of a language-neutral semantic representation; planning acts in a broad and sketchy fashion, the details being decided only in execution; distinguishing between different species of emotional reaction according to the psychological context of the subject. (Boden, 1981, p. 33)Can the synthesis of Man and Machine ever be stable, or will the purely organic component become such a hindrance that it has to be discarded? If this eventually happens-and I have... good reasons for thinking that it must-we have nothing to regret and certainly nothing to fear. (Clarke, 1984, p. 243)The thesis of GOFAI... is not that the processes underlying intelligence can be described symbolically... but that they are symbolic. (Haugeland, 1985, p. 113)14) Artificial Intelligence Provides a Useful Approach to Psychological and Psychiatric Theory FormationIt is all very well formulating psychological and psychiatric theories verbally but, when using natural language (even technical jargon), it is difficult to recognise when a theory is complete; oversights are all too easily made, gaps too readily left. This is a point which is generally recognised to be true and it is for precisely this reason that the behavioural sciences attempt to follow the natural sciences in using "classical" mathematics as a more rigorous descriptive language. However, it is an unfortunate fact that, with a few notable exceptions, there has been a marked lack of success in this application. It is my belief that a different approach-a different mathematics-is needed, and that AI provides just this approach. (Hand, quoted in Hand, 1985, pp. 6-7)We might distinguish among four kinds of AI.Research of this kind involves building and programming computers to perform tasks which, to paraphrase Marvin Minsky, would require intelligence if they were done by us. Researchers in nonpsychological AI make no claims whatsoever about the psychological realism of their programs or the devices they build, that is, about whether or not computers perform tasks as humans do.Research here is guided by the view that the computer is a useful tool in the study of mind. In particular, we can write computer programs or build devices that simulate alleged psychological processes in humans and then test our predictions about how the alleged processes work. We can weave these programs and devices together with other programs and devices that simulate different alleged mental processes and thereby test the degree to which the AI system as a whole simulates human mentality. According to weak psychological AI, working with computer models is a way of refining and testing hypotheses about processes that are allegedly realized in human minds.... According to this view, our minds are computers and therefore can be duplicated by other computers. Sherry Turkle writes that the "real ambition is of mythic proportions, making a general purpose intelligence, a mind." (Turkle, 1984, p. 240) The authors of a major text announce that "the ultimate goal of AI research is to build a person or, more humbly, an animal." (Charniak & McDermott, 1985, p. 7)Research in this field, like strong psychological AI, takes seriously the functionalist view that mentality can be realized in many different types of physical devices. Suprapsychological AI, however, accuses strong psychological AI of being chauvinisticof being only interested in human intelligence! Suprapsychological AI claims to be interested in all the conceivable ways intelligence can be realized. (Flanagan, 1991, pp. 241-242)16) Determination of Relevance of Rules in Particular ContextsEven if the [rules] were stored in a context-free form the computer still couldn't use them. To do that the computer requires rules enabling it to draw on just those [ rules] which are relevant in each particular context. Determination of relevance will have to be based on further facts and rules, but the question will again arise as to which facts and rules are relevant for making each particular determination. One could always invoke further facts and rules to answer this question, but of course these must be only the relevant ones. And so it goes. It seems that AI workers will never be able to get started here unless they can settle the problem of relevance beforehand by cataloguing types of context and listing just those facts which are relevant in each. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 80)Perhaps the single most important idea to artificial intelligence is that there is no fundamental difference between form and content, that meaning can be captured in a set of symbols such as a semantic net. (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)Artificial intelligence is based on the assumption that the mind can be described as some kind of formal system manipulating symbols that stand for things in the world. Thus it doesn't matter what the brain is made of, or what it uses for tokens in the great game of thinking. Using an equivalent set of tokens and rules, we can do thinking with a digital computer, just as we can play chess using cups, salt and pepper shakers, knives, forks, and spoons. Using the right software, one system (the mind) can be mapped into the other (the computer). (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)19) A Statement of the Primary and Secondary Purposes of Artificial IntelligenceThe primary goal of Artificial Intelligence is to make machines smarter.The secondary goals of Artificial Intelligence are to understand what intelligence is (the Nobel laureate purpose) and to make machines more useful (the entrepreneurial purpose). (Winston, 1987, p. 1)The theoretical ideas of older branches of engineering are captured in the language of mathematics. We contend that mathematical logic provides the basis for theory in AI. Although many computer scientists already count logic as fundamental to computer science in general, we put forward an even stronger form of the logic-is-important argument....AI deals mainly with the problem of representing and using declarative (as opposed to procedural) knowledge. Declarative knowledge is the kind that is expressed as sentences, and AI needs a language in which to state these sentences. Because the languages in which this knowledge usually is originally captured (natural languages such as English) are not suitable for computer representations, some other language with the appropriate properties must be used. It turns out, we think, that the appropriate properties include at least those that have been uppermost in the minds of logicians in their development of logical languages such as the predicate calculus. Thus, we think that any language for expressing knowledge in AI systems must be at least as expressive as the first-order predicate calculus. (Genesereth & Nilsson, 1987, p. viii)21) Perceptual Structures Can Be Represented as Lists of Elementary PropositionsIn artificial intelligence studies, perceptual structures are represented as assemblages of description lists, the elementary components of which are propositions asserting that certain relations hold among elements. (Chase & Simon, 1988, p. 490)Artificial intelligence (AI) is sometimes defined as the study of how to build and/or program computers to enable them to do the sorts of things that minds can do. Some of these things are commonly regarded as requiring intelligence: offering a medical diagnosis and/or prescription, giving legal or scientific advice, proving theorems in logic or mathematics. Others are not, because they can be done by all normal adults irrespective of educational background (and sometimes by non-human animals too), and typically involve no conscious control: seeing things in sunlight and shadows, finding a path through cluttered terrain, fitting pegs into holes, speaking one's own native tongue, and using one's common sense. Because it covers AI research dealing with both these classes of mental capacity, this definition is preferable to one describing AI as making computers do "things that would require intelligence if done by people." However, it presupposes that computers could do what minds can do, that they might really diagnose, advise, infer, and understand. One could avoid this problematic assumption (and also side-step questions about whether computers do things in the same way as we do) by defining AI instead as "the development of computers whose observable performance has features which in humans we would attribute to mental processes." This bland characterization would be acceptable to some AI workers, especially amongst those focusing on the production of technological tools for commercial purposes. But many others would favour a more controversial definition, seeing AI as the science of intelligence in general-or, more accurately, as the intellectual core of cognitive science. As such, its goal is to provide a systematic theory that can explain (and perhaps enable us to replicate) both the general categories of intentionality and the diverse psychological capacities grounded in them. (Boden, 1990b, pp. 1-2)Because the ability to store data somewhat corresponds to what we call memory in human beings, and because the ability to follow logical procedures somewhat corresponds to what we call reasoning in human beings, many members of the cult have concluded that what computers do somewhat corresponds to what we call thinking. It is no great difficulty to persuade the general public of that conclusion since computers process data very fast in small spaces well below the level of visibility; they do not look like other machines when they are at work. They seem to be running along as smoothly and silently as the brain does when it remembers and reasons and thinks. On the other hand, those who design and build computers know exactly how the machines are working down in the hidden depths of their semiconductors. Computers can be taken apart, scrutinized, and put back together. Their activities can be tracked, analyzed, measured, and thus clearly understood-which is far from possible with the brain. This gives rise to the tempting assumption on the part of the builders and designers that computers can tell us something about brains, indeed, that the computer can serve as a model of the mind, which then comes to be seen as some manner of information processing machine, and possibly not as good at the job as the machine. (Roszak, 1994, pp. xiv-xv)The inner workings of the human mind are far more intricate than the most complicated systems of modern technology. Researchers in the field of artificial intelligence have been attempting to develop programs that will enable computers to display intelligent behavior. Although this field has been an active one for more than thirty-five years and has had many notable successes, AI researchers still do not know how to create a program that matches human intelligence. No existing program can recall facts, solve problems, reason, learn, and process language with human facility. This lack of success has occurred not because computers are inferior to human brains but rather because we do not yet know in sufficient detail how intelligence is organized in the brain. (Anderson, 1995, p. 2)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Artificial Intelligence
-
11 actual
['æk uəl](real; existing; not imaginary: In actual fact he is not as stupid as you think he is.) real- actually* * *ac.tu.al['æktʃuəl] adj 1 presente, vigente. 2 verdadeiro, real, efetivo. actual horse power n Tech cavalos efetivos. -
12 actual
-
13 unreal
[ʌn'rɪəl]1) (not real) [situation, conversation] irreale2) colloq. spreg. (unbelievable)3) colloq. (amazingly good) incredibile, favoloso* * *(not existing in fact: He lives in an unreal world imagined by himself.) irreale* * *unreal /ʌnˈrɪəl/a.1 irreale; fantastico: Everything was unreal, like a dream, tutto era irreale, come in un sogno; an unreal atmosphere, un'atmosfera irreale3 (fam.) incredibile; pazzesco: I can't believe you did that, you're unreal!, non posso credere che tu l'abbia fatto, sei incredibile!4 ( slang) eccezionale; pazzesco; mitico: «How was your vacation?» «Unreal!», «Com'è stata la tua vacanza?» «mitica!»; He's so talented it's unreal, è pazzesco il talento che haunrealityn.1 [u] irrealtà; incorporeità2 cosa irreale; chimera; fantasia.* * *[ʌn'rɪəl]1) (not real) [situation, conversation] irreale2) colloq. spreg. (unbelievable)3) colloq. (amazingly good) incredibile, favoloso -
14 unreal
adjective* * *- academic.ru/78801/unreality">unreality* * *un·real[ʌnˈrɪəl, AM ʌnˈri:l]1. (not real) unwirklichman, that's \unreal! Mann, das gibt's doch nicht! fam* * *[ʌn'rɪəl]adjunwirklich; (= fake) unechthe's unreal — er ist unmöglich
* * *unreal adj (adv unreally)1. unwirklich, irreal2. substanz-, wesenlos, nur eingebildet3. wirklichkeitsfremd* * *adjective* * *adj.irreal adj.schemenhaft adj.unwirklich adj. -
15 actual
['æktjuəl]adj( real) rzeczywisty, faktyczny; ( expressing emphasis)* * *['æk uəl](real; existing; not imaginary: In actual fact he is not as stupid as you think he is.) rzeczywisty, faktyczny- actually -
16 actual
['æk uəl](real; existing; not imaginary: In actual fact he is not as stupid as you think he is.) real- actually -
17 actual
['æk uəl](real; existing; not imaginary: In actual fact he is not as stupid as you think he is.) real- actually -
18 unreal
(not existing in fact: He lives in an unreal world imagined by himself.) irrealunreal adj irrealtr[ʌn'rɪəl]1 irrealunreal [.ʌn'ri:l] adj: irrealadj.• fantástico, -a adj.• ilusorio, -a adj.• incierto, -a adj.• irreal adj.'ʌn'riːl, ʌn'riːl, ʌn'rɪəladjective irrealwhat a party! unreal! — (AmE colloq) qué fiesta! fue algo increíble!
['ʌn'rɪǝl]ADJ1) (=not real) [situation, world] irreal2) * (=excellent) increíble *; (=unbelievable) increíble* * *['ʌn'riːl, ʌn'riːl, ʌn'rɪəl]adjective irrealwhat a party! unreal! — (AmE colloq) qué fiesta! fue algo increíble!
-
19 actual
['æk uəl](real; existing; not imaginary: In actual fact he is not as stupid as you think he is.) raunverulegur- actually -
20 actual
valóságos, folyamatban levő* * *['æk uəl](real; existing; not imaginary: In actual fact he is not as stupid as you think he is.) tényleges- actually
- 1
- 2
См. также в других словарях:
real — ► ADJECTIVE 1) actually existing or occurring in fact; not imagined or supposed. 2) significant; serious. 3) not artificial; genuine. 4) rightly so called; proper: a real man. 5) adjusted for changes in the value of money; assessed by purchasing… … English terms dictionary
real — real1 realness, n. /ree euhl, reel/, adj. 1. true; not merely ostensible, nominal, or apparent: the real reason for an act. 2. existing or occurring as fact; actual rather than imaginary, ideal, or fictitious: a story taken from real life. 3.… … Universalium
real — I. /ril / (say reel) adjective 1. true (rather than merely ostensible, nominal, or apparent): the real reason for an act. 2. existing or occurring as fact; actual (rather than imaginary, ideal, or fictitious): a story taken from real life. 3.… …
real — real1 [ri:l] adjective 1》 actually existing or occurring in fact; not imagined or supposed. ↘Philosophy relating to something as it is, not merely as it may be described or distinguished. 2》 not artificial or made in imitation of something;… … English new terms dictionary
Real estate economics — is the application of economic techniques to real estate markets. It tries to describe, explain, and predict patterns of prices, supply, and demand. The closely related fields of housing economics is narrower in scope, concentrating on… … Wikipedia
REAL ID Act — of 2005 Full title To establish and rapidly implement regulations for State driver s license and identification document security standards, to prevent terrorists from abusing the asylum laws of the United States, to unify terrorism related… … Wikipedia
real — real1 [rē′əl, rēl] adj. [OFr < ML realis < L res, thing < IE base * rei , property, thing > Sans rai, wealth, property] 1. existing or happening as or in fact; actual, true, etc.; not merely seeming, pretended, imagined, fictitious,… … English World dictionary
Real estate trends — is a generic term used to describe any consistent pattern or change in the general direction of the real estate industry which, over the course of time, causes a statistically noticeable change. This phenomenon can be a result of the economy, a… … Wikipedia
Real — Re al (r[=e] al), a. [LL. realis, fr. L. res, rei, a thing: cf. F. r[ e]el. Cf. {Rebus}.] 1. Actually being or existing; not fictitious or imaginary; as, a description of real life. [1913 Webster] Whereat I waked, and found Before mine eyes all… … The Collaborative International Dictionary of English
Real action — Real Re al (r[=e] al), a. [LL. realis, fr. L. res, rei, a thing: cf. F. r[ e]el. Cf. {Rebus}.] 1. Actually being or existing; not fictitious or imaginary; as, a description of real life. [1913 Webster] Whereat I waked, and found Before mine eyes… … The Collaborative International Dictionary of English
Real assets — Real Re al (r[=e] al), a. [LL. realis, fr. L. res, rei, a thing: cf. F. r[ e]el. Cf. {Rebus}.] 1. Actually being or existing; not fictitious or imaginary; as, a description of real life. [1913 Webster] Whereat I waked, and found Before mine eyes… … The Collaborative International Dictionary of English